Preface

Several years ago I watched a televised special on one of the learning channels that dealt with St. Sebastian. A particular focus of the documentary dealt with Guido Reni. Now, I must admit Reni had never placed high on my list of favored artists. But, as the narrative unfolded my interest was piqued, particularly regarding the three, nearly identical versions of the standing figure with hands tied above the head--i.e., Capitonino, Genoa and Cheltenham--and the five, virtually identical renditions with hands behind the back--i.e., Louvre, Dulwich, Auckland, Prado and Ponce.

Just out of curiosity, I began to locate and identify the numerous two-dimensional images on the Internet. Within a few weeks I had amassed nearly one-thousand-five-hundred examples. I was mildly amazed. The two-dimensional images of Saint Sebastian were only exceeded by those of Jesus Christ and the Virgin Mary!

Why was this martyr-saint so popular? So, I began to make a visual analysis of the collected works as well as the socio-cultural milieu within which they were produced. The following is a brief result of my delving.

The examples found in this study were gleaned from the Internet. There are two Internet sites which were invaluable in the preparation of this study. In both cases there is a vast amount of information and examples in each. They are: The Iconography of Saint Sebastian found at http://bode.diee.unica.it/%7Egiua/SEBASTIAN/#Painting; and the second is the Iconografia di San Sebastiano nell’arte figurativa italiana found at http://www.sansebastiano.com/copertina.htm. In addition a Google search for St. Sebastian images indicates "4,770,000 results," many of which were duplicates. In addition many "Blogger" sites were blocked due to their erotic content and when opened provided numerous examples not displayed in the Google images.

Introduction

The history of many early saints of the Christian church are sketchy, at best. Most of the knowledge we have of them comes from the oral tradition and legend. Little is truly known of the III^rd Century Roman named Sebastian. Yet St. Sebastian is one of the most famous of all Christian martyr-saints. Nearly every major European artist from the Late Medieval through the Baroque has portrayed the martyrdom of this saint in one manner or another. Painted images of this saint are counted in the thousands and sculptural images in the hundreds. As a subject, the martyrdom of St. Sebastian is seen to be second only to the depiction of the Crucifixion of the Christ.¹

An early account of St. Sebastian is found in the Depositio Martyrum of 354 C.E. By the time of St. Ambrose, St. Sebastian was widely venerated. Sebastian is said to have come from Milan, but is believed to have been born in Narbonne (Gallia Narbonensis). He was the son of a prosperous and apparently a fairly prominent citizen of that city--i.e., Milan. As such Sebastian's early life would have been fairly comfortable; he would have been raised and educated is relative affluence. As a young man, probably his late teens, Sebastian entered the employ of the Roman Empire as a soldier, reportedly in the ranks of the Praetorian Guard and circled within the Imperial presence. He advanced in that regiment and, in time rose to the rank of an officer. It has been said that he was favored by the Emperor Diocletian which has caused some to surmise that there was something more between the two than Emperor and servitor. However, "Sebastian's sexuality is not only greatly speculative, but also rather inconsequential."² At some point Sebastian converted to Christianity, possibly before his advancement in the elite Praetorian Guard. Certainly, by the time of his martyrdom, in 286 C.E., Sebastian would have been a grown, mature man. Some declare that he was of middling-years. Having been converted to Christianity, he was said to have been responsible for the conversion of several notable Roman citizens. Being discovered a Christian, Sebastian was commanded to recant his beliefs, but he refused to disavow his faith. Sebastian was then condemned to death by the August Emperor Diocletian.

There were a number of means by which execution could be accomplished in Roman times, some forms were rapid--e.g., shot with arrows or clubbed to death or hung--while others were slow--e.g., stoned or buried alive or crucifixion. Sebastian was taken outside the palace, stripped, bound to a tree or stake and shot by the Mauritanian archers of the Imperial Guard. Death by arrows could be a relatively quick and a sure form of execution particularly when the missiles hit vital organs. But, he survived, either miraculously or by the ineptitude of the Mauritanian archers. These archers from North Africa were a vaunted corps within the Imperial army and were noted and respected throughout the Empire and incompetence was not part of their being. Their corps was exclusively made up of those tall, proud, dark skinned Mauritanians from North Africa who were later known as the Moors. So his survival from their arrows apparently had certain supernatural implications. Certainly, the proud and independent Moors would not have shown any deference for one from Milan even though he had been a member of an elite Imperial guard. It is this particular form of execution--i.e., being shot with arrows--incomplete as it was, that is forever associated with St. Sebastian and is part of his primary iconic identification.

Legend tells us he was found wounded, but still alive and nursed back to health by the sainted widow of St. Castulus--i.e., St. Irene. Castulus was a chamberlain in the Court of the August Emperor Diocletian, who had converted to Christianity while in the Emperor’s employ. In addition he was instrumental in the conversion of a number of the Imperial Household to Christianity before he was discovered and condemned to be buried alive in 286 C.E. It is possible that it was in the home of Castulus and Irene that Sebastian was introduced to the new faith, although there is no evidence to suggest it. St. Irene, having lost her husband the same year, ministered to the martyr-saint, whom she may have known. After his miraculous return to health and well being, Sebastian was credited with several miracles. But, life was not long to be his. Rather than flee Rome for his own safety for more friendly environs, he remained in that city. Sebastian even re-entered the Imperial Palace where he again appeared before the Emperor and chastised him for his persecution of Christians. This must have been a surprise to the Imperial Person as well as an intolerable situation. Sebastian was immediately re-condemned and he was summarily clubbed to death (some source say that he was stoned). In actuality, St. Sebastian's martyrdom was by clubbing or stoning, not by being shot with arrows. Yet, it is the initial attempt on his life that has caught the imagination of artists and it became their preferred subject through the ages. Arrows protruding from a body is usually far more descriptive than the bruises left by a cudgel.

Exactly when St. Sebastian was canonized is not known. The Church merely states that he was elevated to sainthood in "Pre-Congregation" times, as were many early saints--e.g., Saint Apphia, Saint Maris of Persia, Saint Nereus of Terracina among many others..

The earliest known representation of the martyr St. Sebastian is seen in a mosaic of between 527 and 585 C.E. in Sant' Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna (See: Figure 1). In this mosaic the martyr-saint, one of a line, is represented as a Byzantine nobleman, tonsured and holding the wreath of martyrdom, no other iconic device is indicated. If it were not for his name floating over his head, he would be indistinguishable from the rest in that august assemblage. Also there is an early representation of St. Sebastian in San Pietro in Vincoli, Rome of 682 C.E. (See: Figure 2). Here, again, he is recognized by his name bracketing his body.

1. Anonymous, (between 527 and 565), St. Sebastian, Basilica di Sant' Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna, mosaic.

2. Anonymous, (c. 680), St. Sebastian, +hurch of San Pietro in Vincoli, Rome, mosaic.

One of the earliest known representation of the semi-nude St. Sebastian is to be found in the c. 1435 Master of the Playing Cards (See: Figure 3). Here, the martyr-saint is shown tied to a leafed tree and wearing the briefest of undergarment in contrast to the fully clothed archers. After the mid-XV^th Century, a plethora of paintings appeared depicting the semi-nude figure of the martyr-saint--e.g., Marco Zoppo (c. 1453) (See: Figure 4), Andrea Mantegna (1459, 1480 & 1490) (See: Figures 5,6 & 7), Cosimo Tura (c. 1470) (See: Figure 8), Sandro Botticelli (1474) (See: Figure 9), among others. Generally, the saint is portrayed as a youth or a young man.

3. Master of the Playing Cards, (German, active 1435-1455), The Martyrdom

of Saint Sebastian, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York,

4. Marco Zoppo, (1433-1478), St. Sebastian (1475), Courtauld Institute Gallery, London.

5. Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506), St. Sebastian (c. 1459), Kunsthistorisches Museum,Vienna.

6. Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506), St. Sebastian (c. 1480), Musée du Louvre, Paris

7. Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506), St. Sebastian (c. 1490), Ca' d'Oro, Venice